The synthesis of virtually all proteins (mRNA->peptide) occurs in the cytoplasm.[1] That’s where all ribosomes reside, after all. Ribosomes, which are mostly just rRNA (~2/3 rRNA + 1/3 protein*, by weight), are assembled in the nucleus but only do their stuff once they get to the cytoplasm.

For a protein to leave its original hometown of the cytosol and become a resident of the nucleus or, sayyyyyy, the endoplasmic reticulum, it needs to have a little string of amino acids which shout “I belong in the nucleus!” or “I belong in the endoplasmic reticulum!”

Proteins ultimately destined for the ER contain an unimaginatively named string of amino acids known as “signal sequence,” which, for the purposes of the Step 1, is always at the N-terminus. The signal sequence tells other cytosolic proteins, “Hey! Take me (and the rest of the peptide of which I am part) to the ER!”

In the absence of this signal, a protein will remain in its “default” home of the cytosol.

Here’s a nice schematic showing the flow of proteins from initial synthesis to final destinations:

Endnotes

1. “The synthesis of virtually all proteins in the cell begins on ribosomes in the cytosol.” (Essential Cell Biology, Alberts et al., 2014, p. 492)

*If you really want your mind blown, consider that even the protein subunits that make up that 1/3 of a ribosome are themselves initially synthesized in the cytosol; later, they are transported back into the nucleus via the nuclear pore.

These kinds of questions are really hard because I've never seen female reproductive structures irl. :c

The duodenal lumen (and pancreatic proteases like CHYMOTRYPSIN) is the site where pancreatic enzymes (“endopeptidases”) cleave large polypeptides into smaller bits (=dipeptides,tripeptides). It is at the BRUSH BORDER where the smallest kinds of peptides (dipeptides,tripeptides) are broken down into their amino acids, which finally can be co-transported with Na+ into the intestinal cell.

I think about it this way:

• stomach acid denatures and “opens up” proteins (without specific cleavage);
• pancreatic enzymes then cleave denatured polypeptides into smaller bits;
• brush border enzymes finally break down tiniest peptides into absorbable amino acids.

Which of the following reasons is why this question is bull?

1) Using the word "cyclic" instead of tricyclic for clarity

2) Knowing all of epidemiology of all drugs

3) having to reason out that anticholinergic effects are probably the worst over alpha1 or H1 effects to no certainty.

4) The crippling depression of studying for days-to-weeks on end to probably do average on the test.

Urea Cycle Disorders > Isolated severe hyperammonemia (> 1000; i.e., no other severe metabolic disturbances

Ornithine transcarbamylase deficiency > (most common urea cycle dis.) orotic acidemia/aciduria, hyperammonemia

Organic Acidemias > Hyperammonemia, anion-gap acidosis, ketosis (from hypoglycemia)

Medium-chain acyl-CoA dehydrogenase deficiency > Hyperammonemia, hypoketotic hypoglycemia (seen in β-oxidation disorders, EXCEPT adrenoleukodystrophy)

Liver dysfunction > Hyperammonemia, LFTs messed up, older pt.

Everyone who got this question right is a cop. ༼⌐■ل͟■༽

Mast cells degranulate, producing histamine which attracts eosinophils. The early stage of an allergic reaction is mast cell mediated, but the late stage (including mucus production) is mediated by eosinophils.

Fever -> rule out left ventricular failure TMP-SMX prophylaxis -> rule out Pneumocystis jiroveci Kidney transplant but no WBC/RBC in urine -> rule out transplant rejection

Leaving CMV and atypical mycobacterium as the remaining two options. CMV is more likely in a transplant patient.